Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712—1778)

rousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau was one of the most influential thinkers during the Enlightenment in eighteenth century Europe. His first major philosophical piece of work, A Discourse on the Sciences and Arts, was the winning response to an essay contest conducted by the University of Dijon in 1750. In this piece of work, Rousseau argues that the progression of the sciences and arts has acquired the abuse of virtue and morality. This discourse won Rousseau fame and recognition, and it laid much of the philosophical groundwork for a 2d, longer work, The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. The 2d discourse did not win the Academy'due south prize, but like the showtime, it was widely read and farther solidified Rousseau'south identify every bit a meaning intellectual figure. The central claim of the piece of work is that human beings are basically good past nature, but were corrupted past the circuitous historical events that resulted in present day civil guild.Rousseau's praise of nature is a theme that continues throughout his later works as well, the nearly significant of which include his comprehensive work on the philosophy of instruction, the Emile, and his major piece of work on political philosophy, The Social Contract: both published in 1762. These works caused great controversy in France and were immediately banned past Paris government. Rousseau fled France and settled in Switzerland, but he continued to find difficulties with authorities and quarrel with friends. The stop of Rousseau'south life was marked in large role by his growing paranoia and his continued attempts to justify his life and his work. This is especially evident in his later on books, The Confessions, The Reveries of the Lonely Walker, and Rousseau: Guess of Jean-Jacques.

Rousseau greatly influenced Immanuel Kant's work on ethics. His novel Julie or the New Heloise impacted the tardily eighteenth century'south Romantic Naturalism movement, and his political ideals were championed by leaders of the French Revolution.

Table of Contents

  1. Life
    1. Traditional Biography
    2. The Confessions: Rousseau's Autobiography
  2. Background
    1. The Beginnings of Modern Philosophy and the Enlightenment
    2. The Land of Nature as a Foundation for Ethics and Political Philosophy
  3. The Discourses
    1. Soapbox on the Sciences and Arts
    2. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality
    3. Discourse on Political Economic system
  4. The Social Contract
    1. Groundwork
    2. The General Will
    3. Equality, Freedom, and Sovereignty
  5. The Emile
    1. Groundwork
    2. Educational activity
    3. Women, Marriage, and Family
    4. The Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar
  6. Other Works
    1. Julie or the New Heloise
    2. Reveries of the Solitary Walker
    3. Rousseau: Judge of Jean Jacques
  7. Historical and Philosophical Influence
  8. References and Further Reading
    1. Works by Rousseau
    2. Works about Rousseau

ane. Life

a. Traditional Biography

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was built-in to Isaac Rousseau and Suzanne Bernard in Geneva on June 28, 1712. His mother died only a few days after July vii, and his simply sibling, an older brother, ran away from home when Rousseau was still a child. Rousseau was therefore brought upwardly mainly by his father, a clockmaker, with whom at an early on historic period he read ancient Greek and Roman literature such as the Lives of Plutarch. His father got into a quarrel with a French helm, and at the chance of imprisonment, left Geneva for the rest of his life. Rousseau stayed behind and was cared for by an uncle who sent him along with his cousin to report in the village of Bosey. In 1725, Rousseau was apprenticed to an engraver and began to learn the merchandise. Although he did not detest the work, he idea his master to be tearing and tyrannical. He therefore left Geneva in 1728, and fled to Annecy. Here he met Louise de Warens, who was instrumental in his conversion to Catholicism, which forced him to forfeit his Genevan citizenship (in 1754 he would make a return to Geneva and publicly convert back to Calvanism). Rousseau's relationship to Mme. de Warens lasted for several years and eventually became romantic. During this time he earned coin through secretarial, pedagogy, and musical jobs.

In 1742 Rousseau went to Paris to become a musician and composer. Afterwards ii years spent serving a post at the French Diplomatic mission in Venice, he returned in 1745 and met a linen-maid named Therese Levasseur, who would become his lifelong companion (they eventually married in 1768). They had five children together, all of whom were left at the Paris orphanage. It was also during this time that Rousseau became friendly with the philosophers Condillac and Diderot. He worked on several manufactures on music for Diderot and d'Alembert'south Encyclopedie. In 1750 he published the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, a response to the Academy of Dijon'southward essay contest on the question, "Has the restoration of the sciences and arts tended to purify morals?" This soapbox is what originally fabricated Rousseau famous every bit information technology won the Academy's prize. The work was widely read and was controversial. To some, Rousseau's condemnation of the arts and sciences in the First Discourse made him an enemy of progress birthday, a view quite at odds with that of the Enlightenment project. Music was still a major part of Rousseau's life at this point, and several years later, his opera, Le Devin du Village (The Hamlet Soothsayer) was a great success and earned him even more recognition. Simply Rousseau attempted to live a modest life despite his fame, and later the success of his opera, he promptly gave up composing music.

In the fall of 1753, Rousseau submitted an entry to another essay contest appear by the University of Dijon. This time, the question posed was, "What is the origin of inequality among men, and is information technology authorized by the natural police?" Rousseau'due south response would become the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Amongst Men. Rousseau himself thought this work to exist superior to the First Discourse considering the Second Discourse was significantly longer and more philosophically daring. The judges were irritated by its length as well its bold and unorthodox philosophical claims; they never finished reading information technology. Nevertheless, Rousseau had already bundled to have it published elsewhere and like the First Discourse, it also was too widely read and discussed.

In 1756, a year after the publication of the Second Soapbox, Rousseau and Therese Levasseur left Paris later on beingness invited to a business firm in the country by Mme. D'Epinay, a friend to the philosophes. His stay here lasted only a year and involved an thing with a woman named Sophie d'Houdetot, the mistress of his friend Saint-Lambert. In 1757, after repeated quarrels with Mme. D'Epinay and her other guests including Diderot, Rousseau moved to lodgings nearly the land home of the Duke of Luxemburg at Montmorency.

It was during this fourth dimension that Rousseau wrote some of his virtually of import works. In 1761 he published a novel, Julie or the New Heloise, which was one of the best selling of the century. Then, just a year later in 1762, he published two major philosophical treatises: in April his definitive work on political philosophy, The Social Contract, and in May a book detailing his views on education, Emile. Paris authorities condemned both of these books, primarily for claims Rousseau made in them well-nigh religion, which forced him to flee France. He settled in Switzerland and in 1764 he began writing his autobiography, his Confessions. A year later, afterward encountering difficulties with Swiss authorities, he spent time in Berlin and Paris, and somewhen moved to England at the invitation of David Hume. Withal, due to quarrels with Hume, his stay in England lasted only a yr, and in 1767 he returned to the southeast of France incognito.

After spending three years in the southeast, Rousseau returned to Paris in 1770 and copied music for a living. It was during this fourth dimension that he wrote Rousseau: Estimate of Jean-Jacques and the Reveries of the Solitary Walker, which would turn out to be his final works. He died on July 3, 1778. His Confessions were published several years after his decease; and his later political writings, in the nineteenth century.

b. The Confessions: Rousseau's Autobiography

Rousseau'southward own account of his life is given in swell item in his Confessions, the same title that Saint Augustine gave his autobiography over a chiliad years before. Rousseau wrote the Confessions late in his career, and information technology was non published until later his death. Incidentally, two of his other later works, the "Reveries of the Lone Walker" and "Rousseau Approximate of Jean Jacques" are also autobiographical. What is specially hitting nigh the Confessions is the almost atoning tone that Rousseau takes at certain points to explain the various public also every bit individual events in his life, many of which acquired great controversy. It is clear from this book that Rousseau saw the Confessions as an opportunity to justify himself against what he perceived as unfair attacks on his character and misunderstandings of his philosophical idea.

His life was filled with conflict, first when he was apprenticed, later in academic circles with other Enlightenment thinkers like Diderot and Voltaire, with Parisian and Swiss authorities and even with David Hume. Although Rousseau discusses these conflicts, and tries to explain his perspective on them, it is not his sectional goal to justify all of his actions. He chastises himself and takes responsibleness for many of these events, such as his extra-marital affairs. At other times, however, his paranoia is clearly evident as he discusses his intense feuds with friends and contemporaries. And herein lays the primal tension in the Confessions. Rousseau is at the aforementioned time trying both to justify his actions to the public and then that he might gain its blessing, but as well to affirm his own uniqueness as a critic of that same public.

2. Background

a. The Beginnings of Mod Philosophy and the Enlightenment

Rousseau's major works bridge the mid to late eighteenth century. As such, it is appropriate to consider Rousseau, at to the lowest degree chronologically, equally an Enlightenment thinker. Nevertheless, in that location is dispute equally to whether Rousseau'due south idea is best characterized every bit "Enlightenment" or "counter-Enlightenment." The major goal of Enlightenment thinkers was to give a foundation to philosophy that was independent of any particular tradition, culture, or religion: one that whatever rational person would accept. In the realm of scientific discipline, this project has its roots in the birth of modern philosophy, in large part with the seventeenth century philosopher, René Descartes. Descartes was very skeptical about the possibility of discovering final causes, or purposes, in nature. Withal this teleological understanding of the world was the very cornerstone of Aristotelian metaphysics, which was the established philosophy of the time. And so Descartes' method was to doubt these ideas, which he claims can just be understood in a confused mode, in favor of ideas that he could conceive clearly and distinctly. In the Meditations, Descartes claims that the textile globe is made up of extension in space, and this extension is governed by mechanical laws that tin can be understood in terms of pure mathematics.

b. The Country of Nature as a Foundation for Ethics and Political Philosophy

The scope of modern philosophy was not limited only to issues concerning science and metaphysics. Philosophers of this flow also attempted to employ the same type of reasoning to ideals and politics. One approach of these philosophers was to describe human beings in the "state of nature." That is, they attempted to strip human being beings of all those attributes that they took to be the results of social conventions. In doing so, they hoped to uncover certain characteristics of man nature that were universal and unchanging. If this could exist done, i could then determine the nigh effective and legitimate forms of regime.

The two about famous accounts of the state of nature prior to Rousseau's are those of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Hobbes contends that human beings are motivated purely by self-interest, and that the state of nature, which is the state of human being beings without civil society, is the war of every person confronting every other. Hobbes does say that while the land of nature may not have existed all over the world at one detail fourth dimension, it is the condition in which humans would be if there were no sovereign. Locke's business relationship of the country of nature is different in that it is an intellectual exercise to illustrate people'south obligations to one another. These obligations are articulated in terms of natural rights, including rights to life, liberty and property. Rousseau was also influenced by the modernistic natural constabulary tradition, which attempted to reply the challenge of skepticism through a systematic approach to man nature that, like Hobbes, emphasized self-involvement. Rousseau therefore oft refers to the works of Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf, Jean Barbeyrac, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui. Rousseau would give his own account of the state of nature in the Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Amid Men, which volition be examined beneath.

Too influential were the ideals of classical republicanism, which Rousseau took to be illustrative of virtues. These virtues allow people to escape vanity and an emphasis on superficial values that he thought to exist so prevalent in mod society. This is a major theme of the Discourse on the Sciences and Arts.

3. The Discourses

a. Soapbox on the Sciences and Arts

This is the work that originally won Rousseau fame and recognition. The Academy of Dijon posed the question, "Has the restoration of the sciences and arts tended to purify morals?" Rousseau's answer to this question is an emphatic "no." The First Discourse won the academy'southward prize as the best essay. The work is perhaps the greatest example of Rousseau as a "counter-Enlightenment" thinker. For the Enlightenment project was based on the idea that progress in fields similar the arts and sciences practise indeed contribute to the purification of morals on individual, social, and political levels.

The First Discourse begins with a brief introduction addressing the academy to which the piece of work was submitted. Aware that his opinion against the contribution of the arts and sciences to morality could potentially offend his readers, Rousseau claims, "I am not abusing science…I am defending virtue before virtuous men." (First Soapbox, Vol. I, p. 4). In addition to this introduction, the First Discourse is comprised of ii primary parts.

The first part is largely an historical survey. Using specific examples, Rousseau shows how societies in which the arts and sciences flourished more often than not saw the refuse of morality and virtue. He notes that it was after philosophy and the arts flourished that ancient Egypt savage. Similarly, ancient Hellenic republic was once founded on notions of heroic virtue, but afterwards the arts and sciences progressed, it became a society based on luxury and leisure. The one exception to this, co-ordinate to Rousseau, was Sparta, which he praises for pushing the artists and scientists from its walls. Sparta is in stark contrast to Athens, which was the center of good gustation, elegance, and philosophy. Interestingly, Rousseau here discusses Socrates, as one of the few wise Athenians who recognized the corruption that the arts and sciences were bringing about. Rousseau paraphrases Socrates' famous spoken language in the Apology. In his address to the court, Socrates says that the artists and philosophers of his day claim to have knowledge of piety, goodness, and virtue, all the same they practise not really understand anything. Rousseau'south historical inductions are not limited to aboriginal civilizations, however, every bit he also mentions Prc as a learned civilisation that suffers terribly from its vices.

The second part of the Beginning Discourse is an examination of the arts and sciences themselves, and the dangers they bring. First, Rousseau claims that the arts and sciences are born from our vices: "Astronomy was built-in from superstition; eloquence from ambition, hate, flattery, and falsehood; geometry from forehandedness, physics from vain curiosity; all, even moral philosophy, from human pride." (First Discourse, Vol. I, p. 12). The attack on sciences continues as Rousseau articulates how they fail to contribute annihilation positive to morality. They accept time from the activities that are truly important, such as love of land, friends, and the unfortunate. Philosophical and scientific knowledge of subjects such equally the relationship of the mind to the body, the orbit of the planets, and physical laws that govern particles fail to genuinely provide any guidance for making people more virtuous citizens. Rather, Rousseau argues that they create a false sense of need for luxury, so that scientific discipline becomes simply a means for making our lives easier and more pleasurable, merely not morally amend.

The arts are the field of study of similar attacks in the second part of the First Discourse. Artists, Rousseau says, wish first and foremost to exist applauded. Their work comes from a sense of wanting to exist praised as superior to others. Society begins to emphasize specialized talents rather than virtues such as backbone, generosity, and temperance. This leads to withal another danger: the decline of military virtue, which is necessary for a society to defend itself against aggressors. And withal, later on all of these attacks, the Outset Discourse ends with the praise of some very wise thinkers, among them, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton. These men were carried by their vast genius and were able to avoid corruption. All the same, Rousseau says, they are exceptions; and the great majority of people ought to focus their energies on improving their characters, rather than advancing the ideals of the Enlightenment in the arts and sciences.

b. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality

The 2d Discourse, similar the starting time, was a response to a question put forth by the academy of Dijon: "What is the origin of inequality among men; and is it authorized by the natural police?" Rousseau's response to this question, the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, is significantly different from the Get-go Discourse for several reasons. First, in terms of the university'due south response, the 2d Discourse was not almost too received. It exceeded the desired length, it was four times the length of the first, and fabricated very assuming philosophical claims; unlike the Kickoff Discourse, it did not win the prize. Nevertheless, as Rousseau was at present a well-known and respected author, he was able to have it published independently. Secondly, if the First Discourse is indicative of Rousseau as a "counter-Enlightenment" thinker, the Second Discourse, past contrast, tin can rightly be considered to be representative of Enlightenment thought. This is primarily because Rousseau, like Hobbes, attacks the classical notion of human beings as naturally social. Finally, in terms of its influence, the Second Discourse is now much more widely read, and is more than representative of Rousseau's general philosophical outlook. In the Confessions, Rousseau writes that he himself sees the 2nd Discourse equally far superior to the showtime.

The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality is divided into four main parts: a dedication to the Republic of Geneva, a brusque preface, a first function, and a second part. The telescopic of Rousseau's project is non significantly different from that of Hobbes in the Leviathan or Locke in the Second Treatise on Government. Similar them, Rousseau understands society to exist an invention, and he attempts to explain the nature of man beings by stripping them of all of the adventitious qualities brought about by socialization. Thus, agreement human nature amounts to understanding what humans are like in a pure state of nature. This is in stark contrast to the classical view, most notably that of Aristotle, which claims that the state of civil society is the natural human land. Like Hobbes and Locke, however, information technology is doubtful that Rousseau meant his readers to understand the pure country of nature that he describes in the 2nd Discourse as a literal historical business relationship. In its opening, he says that it must be denied that men were e'er in the pure country of nature, citing revelation every bit a source which tells us that God straight endowed the first man with agreement (a chapters that he will afterwards say is completely undeveloped in natural man). However, it seems in other parts of the Second Discourse that Rousseau is positing an actual historical business relationship. Some of the stages in the progression from nature to ceremonious society, Rousseau will fence, are empirically observable in so-called archaic tribes. And so the precise historicity with which one ought to regard Rousseau's land of nature is the matter of some debate.

Function ane is Rousseau's clarification of human beings in the pure state of nature, uncorrupted by civilization and the socialization process. And although this manner of examining homo nature is consequent with other modern thinkers, Rousseau's moving-picture show of "man in his natural state," is radically different. Hobbes describes each human being in the state of nature as being in a constant land of war confronting all others; hence life in the state of nature is solitary, poor, nasty, hardhearted, and short. But Rousseau argues that previous accounts such equally Hobbes' have all failed to actually describe humans in the true state of nature. Instead, they have taken civilized human being beings and merely removed laws, government, and engineering science. For humans to be in a abiding state of state of war with 1 another, they would demand to have complex thought processes involving notions of belongings, calculations virtually the future, firsthand recognition of all other humans as potential threats, and possibly fifty-fifty minimal language skills. These faculties, according to Rousseau, are not natural, but rather, they develop historically. In contrast to Hobbes, Rousseau describes natural man every bit isolated, timid, peaceful, mute, and without the foresight to worry near what the future will bring.

Purely natural human beings are fundamentally dissimilar from the egoistic Hobbesian view in another sense as well. Rousseau acknowledges that self-preservation is i principle of motivation for human being deportment, only unlike Hobbes, it is non the only principle. If it were, Rousseau claims that humans would be cipher more than than monsters. Therefore, Rousseau concludes that self-preservation, or more mostly self-interest, is only 1 of two principles of the human soul. The second principle is pity; it is "an innate repugnance to meet his fellow suffer." (Second Discourse, Vol. II, p. 36). It may seem that Rousseau's depiction of natural human beings is i that makes them no different from other animals. Notwithstanding, Rousseau says that unlike all other creatures, humans are complimentary agents. They accept reason, although in the state of nature information technology is not yet adult. Simply information technology is this faculty that makes the long transition from the country of nature to the state of civilized guild possible. He claims that if one examines any other species over the form of a thou years, they will not take avant-garde significantly. Humans can develop when circumstances ascend that trigger the use of reason.

Rousseau's praise of humans in the state of nature is perhaps i of the almost misunderstood ideas in his philosophy. Although the human is naturally good and the "noble savage" is gratuitous from the vices that plague humans in ceremonious society, Rousseau is not simply maxim that humans in nature are good and humans in ceremonious society are bad. Furthermore, he is not advocating a return to the land of nature, though some commentators, even his contemporaries such as Voltaire, accept attributed such a view to him. Human beings in the state of nature are amoral creatures, neither virtuous nor brutal. Afterwards humans exit the state of nature, they can enjoy a higher class of goodness, moral goodness, which Rousseau articulates most explicitly in the Social Contract.

Having described the pure state of nature in the first part of the Second Discourse, Rousseau's chore in the second function is to explain the complex series of historical events that moved humans from this state to the state of present solar day civil lodge. Although they are not stated explicitly, Rousseau sees this development every bit occurring in a series of stages. From the pure state of nature, humans brainstorm to organize into temporary groups for the purposes of specific tasks like hunting an animal. Very basic language in the form of grunts and gestures comes to exist used in these groups. Withal, the groups last simply every bit long every bit the task takes to be completed, and so they dissolve as quickly equally they came together. The next stage involves more permanent social relationships including the traditional family unit, from which arises conjugal and paternal dear. Basic conceptions of belongings and feelings of pride and competition develop in this phase every bit well. Withal, at this stage they are non developed to the bespeak that they cause the pain and inequality that they exercise in nowadays day social club. If humans could accept remained in this state, they would have been happy for the about part, primarily considering the various tasks that they engaged in could all be washed past each individual. The next phase in the historical development occurs when the arts of agriculture and metallurgy are discovered. Considering these tasks required a division of labor, some people were better suited to certain types of physical labor, others to making tools, and still others to governing and organizing workers. Soon, there become distinct social classes and strict notions of property, creating disharmonize and ultimately a war not unlike the one that Hobbes describes. Those who have the most to lose telephone call on the others to come up together under a social contract for the protection of all. But Rousseau claims that the contract is specious, and that it was no more than than a way for those in power to keep their power by disarming those with less that it was in their interest to accept the state of affairs. And so, Rousseau says, "All ran to meet their bondage thinking they secured their freedom, for although they had enough reason to feel the advantages of political establishment, they did non have enough experience to foresee its dangers." (Second Discourse, Vol. Ii, p. 54).

The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality remains i of Rousseau's nearly famous works, and lays the foundation for much of his political thought equally it is expressed in the Discourse on Political Economy and Social Contract. Ultimately, the work is based on the idea that by nature, humans are essentially peaceful, content, and equal. It is the socialization procedure that has produced inequality, competition, and the egoistic mentality.

c. Discourse on Political Economy

The Soapbox on Political Economy originally appeared in Diderot and d'Alembert'south Encyclopedia. In terms of its content the piece of work seems to be, in many means, a forerunner to the Social Contract, which would appear in 1762. And whereas the Soapbox on the Sciences and Arts and the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality wait dorsum on history and condemn what Rousseau sees equally the lack of morality and justice in his own present day society, this work is much more constructive. That is, the Discourse on Political Economic system explains what he takes to be a legitimate political authorities.

The work is perhaps most significant because it is here that Rousseau introduces the concept of the "general will," a major aspect of his political thought which is farther developed in the Social Contract. In that location is contend among scholars most how exactly one ought to translate this concept, but essentially, ane can understand the general will in terms of an analogy. A political lodge is like a homo body. A trunk is a unified entity though it has various parts that have detail functions. And just as the body has a will that looks later on the well-being of the whole, a political state besides has a will which looks to its general well-being. The major conflict in political philosophy occurs when the general will is at odds with one or more of the individual wills of its citizens.

With the disharmonize between the general and individual wills in mind, Rousseau articulates three maxims which supply the footing for a politically virtuous state: (1) Follow the full general will in every action; (2) Ensure that every particular will is in accordance with the general will; and (3) Public needs must be satisfied. Citizens follow these maxims when in that location is a sense of equality amongst them, and when they develop a genuine respect for law. This over again is in contrast to Hobbes, who says that laws are just followed when people fear punishment. That is, the state must make the penalization for breaking the law and so severe that people exercise not come across breaking the law to be of whatever advantage to them. Rousseau claims, instead, that when laws are in accordance with the general will, good citizens will respect and dear both the land and their young man citizens. Therefore, citizens will meet the intrinsic value in the law, even in cases in which information technology may disharmonize with their individual wills.

iv. The Social Contract

a. Background

The Social Contract is, like the Discourse on Political Economy, a work that is more philosophically constructive than either of the offset two Discourses. Furthermore, the linguistic communication used in the showtime and 2d Discourses is crafted in such a way as to make them appealing to the public, whereas the tone of the Social Contract is not nearly equally eloquent and romantic. Another more obvious difference is that the Social Contract was not almost likewise-received; it was immediately banned past Paris government. And although the offset two Discourses were, at the fourth dimension of their publication, very popular, they are not philosophically systematic. The Social Contract, by dissimilarity, is quite systematic and outlines how a government could exist in such a way that it protects the equality and grapheme of its citizens. But although Rousseau's project is different in scope in the Social Contract than it was in the beginning 2 Discourses, it would be a mistake to say that there is no philosophical connectedness betwixt them. For the earlier works discuss the problems in civil gild as well as the historical progression that has led to them. The Discourse on the Sciences and Arts claims that society has become such that no emphasis is put on the importance of virtue and morality. The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality traces the history of human being beings from the pure country of nature through the institution of a specious social contract that results in nowadays day civil society. The Social Contract does non deny any of these criticisms. In fact, affiliate ane begins with one of Rousseau'due south about famous quotes, which echoes the claims of his earlier works: "Human being was/is born costless; and everywhere he is in chains." (Social Contract, Vol. Four, p. 131). Only dissimilar the first two Discourses, the Social Contract looks frontward, and explores the potential for moving from the specious social contract to a legitimate one.

b. The General Will

The concept of the general will, first introduced in the Discourse on Political Economy, is further adult in the Social Contract although it remains ambiguous and difficult to interpret. The most pressing difficulty that arises is in the tension that seems to be betwixt liberalism and communitarianism. On one hand, Rousseau argues that following the full general will allows for individual variety and liberty. Only at the same time, the general will as well encourages the well-being of the whole, and therefore can conflict with the particular interests of individuals. This tension has led some to claim that Rousseau's political idea is hopelessly inconsistent, although others have attempted to resolve the tension in order to find some blazon of middle ground between the two positions. Despite these difficulties, however, there are some aspects of the general will that Rousseau clearly articulates. First, the general volition is directly tied to Sovereignty: but not Sovereignty merely in the sense of whomever holds power. Only having power, for Rousseau, is non sufficient for that power to be morally legitimate. True Sovereignty is directed always at the public good, and the general will, therefore, speaks always infallibly to the do good of the people. 2d, the object of the general will is ever abstract, or for lack of a meliorate term, general. Information technology can ready rules, social classes, or even a monarchial government, but it can never specify the particular individuals who are subject to the rules, members of the classes, or the rulers in the government. This is in keeping with the idea that the general will speaks to the good of the society as a whole. It is non to be confused with the collection of individual wills which would put their own needs, or the needs of particular factions, above those of the full general public. This leads to a related point. Rousseau argues that there is an important distinction to exist made between the full general will and the collection of individual wills: "At that place is often a great deal of departure between the will of all and the full general will. The latter looks only to the mutual interest; the former considers private involvement and is only a sum of private wills. But take away from these same wills the pluses and minuses that abolish each other out, and the remaining sum of the differences is the full general will." (Social Contract, Vol. IV, p. 146). This point can be understood in an almost Rawlsian sense, namely that if the citizens were ignorant of the groups to which they would belong, they would inevitably brand decisions that would be to the advantage of the society equally a whole, and thus be in accordance with the general volition.

c. Equality, Liberty, and Sovereignty

1 problem that arises in Rousseau'due south political theory is that the Social Contract purports to be a legitimate land in one sense because it frees human beings from their bondage. Merely if the land is to protect private liberty, how can this exist reconciled with the notion of the general volition, which looks always to the welfare of the whole and non to the will of the individual? This criticism, although not unfounded, is also not devastating. To respond information technology, 1 must return to the concepts of Sovereignty and the general will. True Sovereignty, again, is non simply the will of those in ability, but rather the general will. Sovereignty does have the proper say-so override the detail will of an individual or even the collective volition of a particular group of individuals. Nevertheless, equally the general volition is infallible, it can only do and then when intervening will exist to the do good of the guild. To understand this, one must take note of Rousseau'due south emphasis on the equality and liberty of the citizens. Proper intervention on the part of the Sovereign is therefore best understood as that which secures the freedom and equality of citizens rather than that which limits them. Ultimately, the frail balance betwixt the supreme authority of the country and the rights of individual citizens is based on a social contract that protects club confronting factions and gross differences in wealth and privilege among its members.

v. The Emile

a. Background

The Emile or On Education is essentially a work that details Rousseau's philosophy of education. It was originally published just several months after the Social Contract. Like the Social Contract, the Emile was immediately banned by Paris authorities, which prompted Rousseau to flee France. The major point of controversy in the Emile was not in his philosophy of education per se, however. Rather, it was the claims in one part of the book, the Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar in which Rousseau argues against traditional views of religion that led to the banning of the book. The Emile is unique in one sense because information technology is written as office novel and part philosophical treatise. Rousseau would use this same grade in some of his afterwards works every bit well. The book is written in first person, with the narrator as the tutor, and describes his instruction of a pupil, Emile, from birth to adulthood.

b. Education

The bones philosophy of didactics that Rousseau advocates in the Emile, much like his thought in the commencement ii Discourses, is rooted in the notion that man beings are skilful by nature. The Emile is a large work, which is divided into five Books, and Book I opens with Rousseau's merits that the goal of instruction should be to cultivate our natural tendencies. This is not to be confused with Rousseau's praise of the pure state of nature in the Second Discourse. Rousseau is very clear that a render the state of nature once human being beings have go civilized is not possible. Therefore, we should not seek to be noble savages in the literal sense, with no language, no social ties, and an underdeveloped kinesthesia of reason. Rather, Rousseau says, someone who has been properly educated will be engaged in guild, but relate to his or her fellow citizens in a natural way.

At commencement glance, this may seem paradoxical: If human beings are non social by nature, how tin can one properly speak of more or less natural ways of socializing with others? The all-time answer to this question requires an explanation of what Rousseau calls the 2 forms of cocky-love: amour-propre and amour de soi. Amour de soi is a natural form of self-love in that information technology does not depend on others. Rousseau claims that by our nature, each of the states has this natural feeling of love toward ourselves. We naturally look after our own preservation and interests. By dissimilarity, amour-propre is an unnatural self-love that is essentially relational. That is, it comes near in the ways in which human beings view themselves in comparing to other human being beings. Without amour-propre, human being beings would scarcely exist able to movement beyond the pure state of nature Rousseau describes in the Discourse on Inequality. Thus, amour-propre can contribute positively to man freedom and even virtue. Even so, flirtation-propre is also extremely dangerous because it is so hands corruptible. Rousseau oft describes the dangers of what commentators sometimes refer to as 'inflamed' amour-propre. In its corrupted form, amour-propre is the source of vice and misery, and results in man beings basing their ain self worth on their feeling of superiority over others. While not adult in the pure state of nature, amour-propre is still a key role of human nature. Therefore goal of Emile's natural education is in large office to keep him from falling into the corrupted form of this type of self-love.

Rousseau's philosophy of pedagogy, therefore, is not geared but at particular techniques that best ensure that the pupil volition blot information and concepts. It is better understood as a manner of ensuring that the pupil's character be developed in such a way as to have a healthy sense of cocky-worth and morality. This will permit the pupil to be virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect gild in which he lives. The character of Emile begins learning important moral lessons from his infancy, thorough childhood, and into early adulthood. His education relies on the tutor'south abiding supervision. The tutor must even manipulate the environment in order to teach sometimes hard moral lessons most humility, guiltlessness, and honesty.

c. Women, Spousal relationship, and Family

As Emile's is a moral education, Rousseau discusses in nifty detail how the young student is to be brought up to regard women and sexuality. He introduces the character of Sophie, and explains how her education differs from Emile'due south. Hers is non as focused on theoretical matters, every bit men's minds are more than suited to that type of thinking. Rousseau's view on the nature of the relationship between men and women is rooted in the notion that men are stronger and therefore more contained. They depend on women merely considering they desire them. By contrast, women both demand and desire men. Sophie is educated in such a mode that she volition fill what Rousseau takes to be her natural function equally a wife. She is to exist submissive to Emile. And although Rousseau advocates these very specific gender roles, it would be a mistake to accept the view that Rousseau regards men equally only superior to women. Women have item talents that men exercise not; Rousseau says that women are cleverer than men, and that they excel more in matters of practical reason. These views are continually discussed among both feminist and Rousseau scholars.

d. The Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar

The Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar is function of the 4th Book of the Emile. In his discussion of how to properly brainwash a pupil about religious matters, the tutor recounts a tale of an Italian who thirty years before was exiled from his boondocks. Disillusioned, the young man was aided by a priest who explained his own views of organized religion, nature, and science. Rousseau then writes in the outset person from the perspective of this beau, and recounts the Vicar's speech.

The priest begins by explaining how, after a scandal in which he broke his vow of celibacy, he was arrested, suspended, and then dismissed. In his woeful state, the priest began to question all of his previously held ideas. Doubting everything, the priest attempts a Cartesian search for truth by doubting all things that he does not know with absolute certainty. Just unlike Descartes, the Vicar is unable to come up to whatever kind of articulate and singled-out ideas that could non be doubted. Instead, he follows what he calls the "Inner Light" which provides him with truths so intimate that he cannot help but accept them, even though they may exist bailiwick to philosophical difficulties. Among these truths, the Vicar finds that he exists as a costless being with a free volition which is distinct from his body that is not discipline to physical, mechanical laws of motion. To the problem of how his immaterial will moves his physical trunk, the Vicar just says "I cannot tell, simply I perceive that information technology does so in myself; I volition to do something and I exercise it; I will to move my body and it moves, only if an inanimate torso, when at rest, should begin to move itself, the matter is incomprehensible and without precedent. The will is known to me in its action, non in its nature." (Emile, p. 282). The discussion is particularly meaning in that it marks the well-nigh comprehensive metaphysical account in Rousseau'southward idea.

The Profession of Religion also includes the controversial word of natural organized religion, which was in big part the reason why Emile was banned. The controversy of this doctrine is the fact that it is categorically opposed to orthodox Christian views, specifically the claim that Christianity is the one truthful religion. The Vicar claims instead that knowledge of God is constitute in the observation of the natural society and 1's place in information technology. And so, any organized faith that correctly identifies God as the creator and preaches virtue and morality, is true in this sense. Therefore, the Vicar concludes, each citizen should dutifully exercise the religion of his or her own country so long every bit information technology is in line with the faith, and thus morality, of nature.

half-dozen. Other Works

a. Julie or the New Heloise

Julie or the New Heloise remains one of Rousseau's popular works, though it is not a philosophical treatise, but rather a novel. The work tells the story of Julie d'Etange and St. Preux, who were ane time lovers. Later on, at the invitation of her husband, St. Preux unexpectedly comes back into Julie's life. Although not a work of philosophy per se, Julie or the New Heloise is still unmistakably Rousseau's. The major tenets of his thought are clearly evident; the struggle of the individual confronting societal norms, emotions versus reason, and the goodness of human nature are all prevalent themes.

b. Reveries of the Solitary Walker

Rousseau began writing the Reveries of the Lonely Walker in the fall of 1776. By this time, he had grown increasingly distressed over the condemnation of several of his works, most notably the Emile and the Social Contract. This public rejection, combined with rifts in his personal relationships, left him feeling betrayed and even every bit though he was the victim of a great conspiracy. The piece of work is divided into 10 "walks" in which Rousseau reflects on his life, what he sees as his contribution to the public good, and how he and his work have been misunderstood. Information technology is interesting that Rousseau returns to nature, which he had always praised throughout his career. One as well recognizes in this praise the recognition of God as the simply creator of nature, a theme then prevalent in the Profession of Religion of the Savoyard Vicar. The Reveries of the Solitary Walker, like many of Rousseau'due south other works, is part story and part philosophical treatise. The reader sees in information technology, not only philosophy, but also the reflections of the philosopher himself.

c. Rousseau: Judge of Jean Jacques

The virtually distinctive feature of this late work, often referred to simply every bit the Dialogues, is that it is written in the class of 3 dialogues. The characters in the dialogues are "Rousseau" and an interlocutor identified only as a "Frenchman." The field of study of these characters' conversations is the author "Jean-Jacques," who is the actual historical Rousseau. This somewhat disruptive arrangement serves the purpose of Rousseau judging his own career. The character "Rousseau," therefore, represents Rousseau had he non written his collected works but instead had discovered them every bit if they were written by someone else. What would he think of this author, represented in the Dialogues as the character "Jean-Jacques?" This self-examination makes two major claims. Starting time, like the Reveries, it makes clearly axiomatic the fact that Rousseau felt victimized and betrayed, and shows perhaps fifty-fifty more than and so than the Reveries, Rousseau'southward growing paranoia. And 2d, the Dialogues represent i of the few places that Rousseau claims his work is systematic. He claims that there is a philosophical consistency that runs throughout his works. Whether 1 accepts that such a system is present in Rousseau's philosophy or not is a question that was non only debated during Rousseau's fourth dimension, but is also continually discussed among contemporary scholars.

vii. Historical and Philosophical Influence

It is hard to overestimate Rousseau's influence, both in the Western philosophical tradition, and historically. Maybe his greatest directly philosophical influence is on the ethical thought of Immanuel Kant. This may seem puzzling at first glance. For Kant, the moral law is based on rationality, whereas in Rousseau, there is a abiding theme of nature and even the emotional faculty of pity described in the Second Discourse. This theme in Rousseau's thought is non to exist ignored, and information technology would be a mistake to understand Rousseau's ethics merely as a precursor to Kant; certainly Rousseau is unique and pregnant in his own respect. But despite these differences, the influence on Kant is undeniable. The Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar is 1 text in item that illustrates this influence. The Vicar claims that the correct view of the universe is to see oneself not at the center of things, but rather on the circumference, with all people realizing that we have a common centre. This same notion is expressed in the Rousseau's political theory, particularly in the concept of the general will. In Kant'due south ideals, ane of the major themes is the claim that moral deportment are those that tin be universalized. Morality is something separate from individual happiness: a view that Rousseau undoubtedly expresses too.

A 2nd major influence is Rousseau's political thought. Non only is he 1 of the almost important figures in the history of political philosophy, subsequently influencing Karl Marx amidst others, just his works were also championed by the leaders of the French Revolution. And finally, his philosophy was largely instrumental in the late eighteenth century Romantic Naturalism movement in Europe thanks in big role to Julie or the New Heloise and the Reveries of the Lonely Walker.

Gimmicky Rousseau scholarship continues to talk over many of the same issues that were debated in the eighteenth century. The tension in his political idea between individual liberty and totalitarianism continues to be an issue of controversy among scholars. Another aspect of Rousseau'southward philosophy that has proven to be influential is his view of the family, particularly equally information technology pertains to the roles of men and women.

8. References and Further Reading

a. Works past Rousseau

Below is a listing of Rousseau'southward major works in chronological society. The titles are given in the original French as well as the English translation. Following the title is the yr of the work'south first publication and, for some works, a brief description:

  • Discours sur les Sciences et les Arts (Discourse on the Sciences and Arts), 1750.
    • Often referred to as the "First Soapbox," this work was a submission to the Academy of Dijon's essay contest, which it won, on the question, "Has the restoration of the sciences and arts tended to purify morals?"
  • Le Devin du Hamlet (The Village Soothsayer), 1753.
    • Rousseau's opera: it was performed in France and widely successful.
  • Narcisse ou l'amant de lui-même (Narcissus or the lover of himself), 1753.
    • A play written by Rousseau.
  • Lettre sur la musique francaise (Letter on French music), 1753.
  • Discours sur l'origine et les fondments de l'inegalite (Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality), 1755.
    • Frequently referred to as the "Second Discourse," this was some other submission to an essay contest sponsored by the Academy of Dijon, though unlike the First Soapbox, it did not win the prize. The Second Soapbox is a response to the question, "What is the Origin of Inequality Among Men and is it Authorized by the Natural Law?"
  • Discours sur l'Économie politique (Soapbox on Political Economy), 1755.
    • Sometimes chosen the "Third Discourse," this work originally appeared in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert.
  • Lettre á d'Alembert sur les Glasses (Letter to Alembert on the Theater), 1758.
  • Juli ou la Nouvelle Héloïse (Julie or the New Heloise), 1761.
    • A novel that was widely read and successful immediately later its publication.
  • Du Contract Social (The Social Contract), 1762.
    • Rousseau'southward near comprehensive work on politics.
  • Émile ou de l'Éducation (Émile or On Education), 1762.
    • Rousseau's major work on pedagogy. Information technology also contains the Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar, which documents Rousseau's views on metaphysics, free volition, and his controversial views on natural religion for which the work was banned by Parisian authorities.
  • Lettre á Christophe de Beaumont, Archévêque de Paris (Letter to Christopher de Beaumont, Archbishop of Paris), 1763.
  • Lettres écrites de la Montagne (Messages Written from the Mountain), 1764.
  • Dictionnaire de Musique (Dictionary of Music), 1767.
  • Émile et Sophie ou les Solitaires (Émile and Sophie or the Solitaries), 1780.
    • A short sequel to the Émile.
  • Considérations sur le gouverment de la Pologne (Considerations on the Government of Poland), 1782.
  • Les Confessions (The Confessions), Part I 1782, Part II 1789.
    • Rousseau'southward autobiography.
  • Rousseau juge de Jean-Jacques, Dialogues (Rousseau estimate of Jean-Jacques, Dialogues), Starting time Dialogue 1780, Complete 1782.
  • Les Rêveries du Promeneur Solitaire (Reveries of the Lonely Walker), 1782.

b. Works well-nigh Rousseau

The standard original language edition is Ouevres completes de Jean Jacques Rousseau, eds. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond, Paris: Gallimard, 1959-1995. The nearly comprehensive English translation of Rousseau's works is the Collected Writings of Rousseau, series eds. Roger Masters and Christopher Kelly, Hanover: University Press of New England, 1990-1997. References are given by the title of the work, the volume number (in Roman Numerals), and the folio number. The Collected Works practice not include the Emile. References to this work are from Emile, trans. Barbara Foxley, London: Lowest, 2000. The following is a brief list of widely available secondary texts.

  • Cooper, Laurence D. Rousseau and Nature: The Trouble of the Good Life. Penn State UP, 1999. Cranston, Maurice. Jean-Jacques: The Early on Life and Work of Jean-Jacques, 1712- 1754. University of Chicago Press, 1991.
  • Cranston, Maurice. The Noble Savage: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1754-1762. University of Chicago Press, 1991.
  • Cranston, Maurice. The Solitary Self: Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Exile and Arduousness. University of Chicago Printing, 1997.
  • Dent, Due north.J.H. Rousseau. Blackwell, 1988.
  • Gourevitch, Victor. Rousseau: The 'Discourses' and Other Early Political Writings. Cambridge Up, 1997.
  • Gourevitch, Victor. Rousseau: The 'Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings. Cambridge UP, 1997.
  • Melzer, Arthur. The Natural Goodness of Human being: On the Systems of Rousseau'south Thought. Academy of Chicago Press, 1990.

    • Neuhouser, Frederick. Rousseau's Theodicy of Self-Love: Evil, Rationality, and the Drive for Recognition. Oxford University Printing, 2008.

  • O'Hagan, Timothy. Rousseau. Routledge, 1999.
  • Riley, Patrick, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau. Cambridge Upward, 2001.
  • Reisert, Joseph. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: A Friend of Virtue. Cornell UP, 2003.
  • Rosenblatt, Helena. Rousseau and Geneva. Cambridge: Cabridge UP, 1997.
  • Starobinski, Jean. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstacle. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
  • Wokler, Robert. Rousseau. Oxford: Oxford Upwards, 1995.
  • Wokler, Robert, ed. Rousseau and Liberty. Manchester: Manchester Upwardly, 1995.

Author Data

James J. Delaney
Electronic mail: jdelaney@niagara.edu
Niagara University
U. S. A.